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AMERICA'S 
PLACE IN HISTORY 



BY 
WILLIAM R. LIVERMORE 



AMERICA'S 
PLACE IN HISTORY 



BY 
WILLIAM R. LIVERMORE 



Rephinted from the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 
Volume XIX 



WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS 

THE DAVIS PRESS 

1908 



"^ -» 









AMERICA'S PLACE IN HISTORY. 

BY WILLIAM R. LIVERMORE 

Colonel U. S. Army (retired). 



The time that has been spent in writing history would be 
poorly repaid if no other use could be made of the material 
than to file it away for occasional reference. History to-day 
has a broader meaning, and one of its aims should be to 
discover laws that will be useful in guiding the conduct 
of individuals or nations and perhaps ultimately in predicting 
future events with some degree of probability. 

To this end the facts must first be reduced to a form in 
which they can be handled. There can be no induction 
without reduction by classification and comparison. If 
we can classify history as we classify plants in botany, 
we can compare like with like and learn more than if we 
compared objects or events that had no resemblance. 
History is a science, and this principle applies to all sciences. 

In natural history, comparison has led to the discovery 
of the law of natural selection; in chemistry, to the periodic 
law ; in philology, it has thrown light on the early history 
of mankind. The rules of grammar also are based upon it. 
A rule that has one exception in ten, points to the cause 
of the rule and to the cause of the exception, and reduces 
the work of analysis and even of memory by ninety percent. 
The principle applies also to algebra. When a school boy 
tried to reduce a polynomial by taking 9a from 15b, my 
honored professor would advise him that he could not sub- 
tract from sugar an old shoe. Without vouching for the 
rigid truth of the aphorism, it illustrates the principle that 
comparison should be based upon a similarity in one of the 
properties, factors or phases of the objects compared. 



A comparison of like phases of history is useful in analys- 
ing the laws of development and in studying the effect 
of organic growth on the one hand, and of environment 
on the other; and the greater the similarity, the more signifi- 
cant also is the difference. The classification here proposed 
is based upon political history in the broadest sense. Civil- 
ization has, of course, followed the trade routes which have 
been studied so profitably by modern economists; and a 
classification might be based upon these routes; but it is 
better to follow the usual course, and compare the history 
of religion, of commerce, and of the arts and sciences, etc., 
with political history, than to make any other subject the 
basis of the general classification. 

Much more has been written about Europe and America 
than about all the rest of the world. It is with the group 
of nations that grew out of the conquest of the old inhab- 
itants of Europe by the Aryan invaders that Americans are 
most concerned, because all the civilizations and all the 
political systems from which ours has come, have been 
directed or controlled by these nations. 

The history of the East is not so closely related to our 
own. It began earlier, for, about four thousand years before 
Christ, the little city communities in Egypt and in Baby- 
lonia coalesced into larger states, and afterwards into 
powerful empires; but meanwhile in Crete and on the shores 
and islands of the iEgean, the Mediterranean or Iberian 
race had developed a state and a civilization of its own. 

Between one and two thousand years before Cluist, the 
Aryans first appeared. We know from their languages that 
they had been associated in government or in trade, and 
we infer from their skulls that they were a mixture of the 
Asiatic and European races. They came as conquerors 
from the region about the Black and Caspian Seas and 
spread over Central and Southern Europe and Western 
Asia. The Indians and Persians spread out to the East. 
The Greeks and Thracians occupied Greece and Asia Minor. 
The Italians entered Italy. The Celts and other Aryan 
nations were for a long time outside the region of the ancient 
civilization, but they all kept slowly pushing on to the West. 



This civilization which started in the iEgean Sea has been 
constantly expanding and has passed through similar 
phases in ancient and modern times. The civilized world 
was first broken up into rival states in Greece. When it 
reached Italy it expanded with a steady growth into a 
large nation that in turn was broken up into a number of 
rival states in modern Europe. When it reached America 
it expanded again to form a large nation. 

As civilization spread, larger nations were gradually 
developed and the accidental resemblance in the shape of 
Greece and Italy on one hand, to Europe and America on 
the other, has given to the history of these countries a 
periodical course which affords a convenient basis for its 
classification; as the periodic law does for the classification 
of the chemical elenients. 

When the Aryans first invaded the Greek peninsula, 
all the islands and shores of the -^gean were, perhaps, united 
under the kings of Crete; but how far inland this dominion 
or influence extended, is unknown. The conquest broke 
up the region into a number of small communities, in most 
of which, the Aryans formed the governing class. The 
shape of the ground, cut up by bays and mountain ranges, 
did not favor the formation of large states. 

The northern part of the Balkan peninsula, although 
mountainous, is not as diversified as Southern Greece, and 
is not cut up by the sea. The flux of population kept on 
longer, and civilization was slower in penetrating ; but Mace- 
donia, an Aryan state, half Greek, partly Illyrian and Thracian, 
gradually sprang up in the valleys north of Mount Olympus. 

The Italian peninsula is not, like the Grecian, cut up by 
bays and mountains. The Greek civilization was brought 
there by the Etruscans and Greeks, and about 500 B. C., 
when it was well advanced in Greece, it did not extend 
far from the seacoast in Italy, but under its influence, 
strong confederations were formed by the Italians in the 
central part of the peninsula that were eventually united 
to form the Roman Republic. 

The Greeks fought each other until the balance of power 
was destroyed, and then under the leadership of the Mace- 



6 

donians they poured into Asia, conquered the Persian 
Empire and divided it up. 

Then all Italy was united under the Romans, and then 
Greece, Western Asia, Northern Africa and Western 
Europe were added to it, and Greek and Roman civilization 
spread over all this area. 

Then another migration from the East and North broke 
up this civilization of the Mediterranean, just as the former 
had broken up that of the ^gean. The empire could not 
hold together in the hands of the new population that 
resulted from these great migrations, but while the political 
power of Rome was broken, its civilization kept spreading, 
even against the tide of migration. Europe, like Greece, 
cut up by bays and mountain ranges, was divided into a 
number of rival states. 

After more than a thousand years, European civilization 
made its appearance in America. Central and South America 
were colonized from the south of Europe and Northern 
America from the North. The American continent is 
not, like the European, cut up by bays and mountain ranges. 
The nation that has been formed in North America by the 
immigrants from Northern Europe, but in which all Euro- 
pean states are more or less represented, is now the dominant 
power on this continent. 

The history of the East has perhaps been as much affected 
by the shape of the continents as that of the West, and its 
development has also been periodic; but this paper is only 
so far concerned with the East as to note that the periodic 
time of violent contact with the West has chanced to coincide 
so nearly with the periodic time of Western development 
that it has not materially perturbed its regular course. 

The scheme of classification proposed does not differ 
in its general outline from that in ordinary use. Universal 
History is divided into Eastern and Western — Ancient and 
Modern. The Ancient history of the civilized West is 
divided into that of Greece and Rome, and the Modern 
history into that of Europe and America. For further 
classification it is proposed to compare Greek history with 
European and Roman with American. 



Plates I and II show the outlines of the Greek and Italian 
peninsulas. la and Ila show the ancient names mentioned 
in the text, and 16 and 116 the names of modern countries 
whose positions on the European and American continents 
correspond with those of the ancient countries on the Greek 
and Italian peninsulas. 

The little tables on these sketches are scales of time 
to aid in comparing ancient with modern history. 

At the southern end of Greece (Plate I) and the western 
end of Europe, the southern half of the Peloponnesus, and 
the British Islands were protected by their position. Sparta 
and England developed on their own lines. The ruling 
class was Doric in Sparta and Norman in England. The 
old population was Achaean in Sparta and Anglo-Saxon 
in England. Messenia and Ireland were conquered, and 
Arcadia and Scotland were after a while united with Sparta 
and England. 

The region about the isthmus of Corinth lies between the 
iEgean and the Ionian Seas, as Spain lies between the 
Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. In the Greek 
states near the isthmus, the ruling class was Doric, but the 
population was mostly Ionic and Achgean. There are 
evidences of Phoenician influence at Corinth. In Spain 
the ruling class was Visigothic but the population mainly 
Latin, (in the popular sense of the word) and in the south, 
partly Saracenic and Moorish. The history of Corinth^ 
Sicyon, Argos and Megara has some points of resemblance 
to that of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Portugal. 

Attica lies between the isthmus and central Greece. 
France lies between Spain and central Europe. The popu- 
lation in Attica was mainly Ionic, in France mainly Latin. 
The arts and sciences flourished in both. 

Thessaly and Central Greece appear to have played a 
part in Greek history like that of Scandinavia and Germany 
in European. Of course, no detailed correspondence could 
be expected. The population was Doric, .Eolian and Achaan 
in Greece, and Scandinavian, Saxon, Frank, etc. in Europe. 

The island of Euboea is near Central Greece, as Italy 
is near Central Europe. The population of Euboea was 



8 

Ionic, that of Italy, Latin. Chalcis and Eretria had a mari- 
time history Hke that of Venice and Genoa. The Delphic 
oracle, however, was on the main land, whereas the Holy 
See was in the centre of Italy. 

The northwest of Greece did not come into the pale of 
Greek civilization until the Macedonian period. The position 
of Macedonia corresponds to that of Russia, but it faced to 
the east, whereas Russia faced to the west. 

In classifying nations according to maritime and com- 
mercial supremacy England might be compared with Athens 
rather than with Sparta. In their intellectual development, 
England and Germany would probably prefer to be compared 
with Athens; but in a classification according to political 
and territorial relations England corresponds to Sparta, 
France to Athens, and Germany to Central Greece. 

The resemblance of the earliest history of Rome and 
America is not as obvious as that of Greece and Europe. 
The western side of Greece faces the southern ends of Italy. 
The eastern side of America faces the western ends of Europe. 

The shores of Southern Italy (Plate Ha) were colonized 
by Greeks descended in part from the Aryan conquerors 
but in the main from the old Iberian inhabitants of Greece. 
They came in comparatively small numbers and mingled 
with the native Iberian population. 

Northern and Central Italy, however, were occupied by 
the Italians who came in from the north without passing 
through the civilized part of Greece. They came in large 
numbers and crowded most of the old population down to 
the south. 

Central and South America were colonized by the Span- 
iards and others from the Mediterranean, and from south- 
western Europe. 

Northern America, however, was colonized from Europe in 
small numbers by the French, whose ancestors had been under 
the influence of Roman civilization, and in large numbers 
by the English and others from Northern Europe, who 
were descended from those who had taken part in the 
migrations that had destroyed the Roman Empire. They 
drove back the old population. From the standpoint of 



9 

ethnology the present inhabitants of Northern America 
may be compared with those of Central and Northern Italy; 
and those of Central and South America with those of Southern 
Italy and Sicily and other parts of the Mediterranean. 

The Greeks in Italy brought their civilization with them; 
whereas the Italians received it from the Greeks after they 
arrived in Italy. In America all the immigrants brought 
the European civilization with them. Accordingly we 
cannot expect to find in early Roman and American history 
as close a resemblance as we find in Greek and European. 
In comparing Greek with European history, the Greek 
colonies in Italy should be compared with all the European 
colonies in America; but it is not worth while to discuss 
these relations in this paper. In comparing American 
with Roman history the Greeks in Italy and Sicily are 
compared with the Spanish, and the Italians with the 
English in America. The broken and dotted lines on Plate 
Ila show the extreme limit of the Greek possessions. 

Civilization came to the western coast of central Italy 
and to the eastern coast of North America; and the Tyr- 
rhenian Sea is compared with the Atlantic Ocean and the 
Adriatic Sea with the Pacific Ocean. The position of the 
thirteen original colonies is compared with that of Latium ; 
the territory of Rome with that of the northern colonies 
and that of the other Latin towns with that of the southern. 

The population in Etruria as elsewhere in northern Italy 
was partly Aryan and partly Iberian. Its position corre- 
sponds to that of Canada where the population was partly 
English and partly French. No special comparison is 
made excepting that the Etruscans were the northern 
neighbors of the Romans. 

Apulia on the Adriatic corresponds with California on 
the Pacific. The Adriatic coast north of Apulia corresponds 
to the Pacific coast north of California. 

For convenience of comparison, Greek and European 
histoiy are divided into epochs of about 150 years each 
for Greece, and 200 years for Europe. 

The sub-divisions are arbitrary and not intended for a 
final classification, but to show that a useful classification 



la. 




CRAECIA 



RVSSth 



Ik. 



QkECee tUKOPE 

S.e. A-o. 

/OOO 1000 

tro ....-■... fteo 

jeo ... """> 

ffo . •. . lioo 

440 ...-.-.. /tit 
3^0 /»«« 




12 



could be made by taking the periodic time in European 
history to be about four-thirds as great as in Greek. 

It must not be supposed for a moment that other com- 
parisons than the following could not be made with propriety. 

COMPARISON OF ANCIENT GREEK AND MODERN 
EUROPEAN HISTORY. 

There is not enough known of the history of Greece during 
the Mythical Age that followed the first invasion of the 
Aryans to serve as a basis for a detailed comparison with 
that of Europe during the Dark Age that followed the 
great migrations. So far as known the resemblance is as 
close as could be expected, and the results of new excavations 
tend to show that the correspondence is far reaching. 

During the First Epoch: from 1000 to 850 B. C. in 

Ancient Greece and from 1000 to 1200 A. D. 

IN Modern Europe. 

Ancient. The Dorians, the last arrivals, had come in 
comparatively small numbers from the north 
of Greece. They gradually conquered Laconia 
and other parts of the Peloponnesus and Crete, 
and penetrated as far as the southwest coast of 
Asia Minor. They probably settled among 
the Illyrians in the north where they are said 
to have laid the foundations of the Macedonian 
Empire. 

Modem. The Scandinavians, the last arrivals, had 

come in comparatively small numbers from the 
north of Europe. They gradually conquered 
England, Normandy, and Sicily and penetrated 
as far as Constantinople. They probably settled 
among the Slavonians in the northeast where 
they are said to have laid the foundations of 
the Russian Empire. 

Ancient. The Amphictyonic League was semi-religious 
and semi-pohtical. Many of the states, tribes, 
cities, etc., of Greece were nominally represented, 



13 



but the distribution of votes indicates that the 
centre of political power at this epoch was in 
Central Greece. All were pledged to support 
the Delphic Oracle. 

Modern. The Holy Roman Empire was semi-religious 
and semi-political. Many of the states, duke- 
doms, cities, etc., of Europe, nominally formed 
parts of this Empire. The bond of union was 
loose but the centre of political power was in 
Central Europe. The emperor was elective 
and pledged to support the Holy See. 

Ancient. The Phoenicians controlled the commerce of 
the iEgean and part of the population of Corinth 
was probably Phoenician. 

Modem. The Saracens were powerful on the Mediter- 

ranean and half of Spain was in their power. 



During the Second Epoch : from about 850 to 700 B. C. 

IN Ancient Greece and from 1200 to 1400 

A. D. IN Modern Europe. 

Ancient. Most of the states were no longer governed 
by kings but by the oligarchical nobility. 

Modern. The Emperors and kings were generally 

retained, but in most of the states the political 
power was held by the feudal nobility. 

Ancient. The kings of Sparta retained their power 
under certain limitations, and, while Sparta 
was the champion of oligarchic principles, her 
own government was more stable than that 
of her neighbors. She overran Messenia and 
at times held military control over many of the 
states in the Peloponnesus. 

Modem. The kings of England retained their p6wer under 

certain limitations, and while England was the 
champion of feudal principles, her government 
was more stable than that of her neighbors. She 
overran Ireland and at times held military con- 
trol over many of the provinces of western France. 



14 



Ancient. The north-western shores of the -^gean Sea 
opposite Macedonia occupied by Thracian and 
Illyrian tribes were colonized from Euboea and 
the Isthmus. 

Modern. The southeastern shores of the Baltic, opposite 

Russia were colonized (not, however, from Spain 
and Italy, but mostly from Germany.) 

Ancient. The migrations of the Scythians in Asia 
stirred up the Cimmerians and Thracians in 
Europe. This retarded the progress of the 
Macedonians, but had little effect on the rest 
of Greece. 

Modem. The migrations of the Mongols, however, 

drove the Tartars into Europe. The Russians 
were subjected to tribute. Their progress was 
retarded about 300 years. 



During the Third Epoch: from 700 to 550 B. C. in 
Greece and from 1400 to 1600 A. D. in Europe. 

Ancient. In several states oligarchies were overthrown 
by despots. 

Modem. In several states the feudal power gave way 

to that of monarchs. 

Ancient. Attica, Eleusis and Salamis were united under 

Athens. Messenia revolted and was subjected 
to slavery. 

Modem. Most of France was restored to the royal 

domain. 

The Irish were repeatedly abandoned, mur- 
dered and enslaved. 

Ancient. Corinth, Megara, Chalcis, etc., were powerful 
at sea. Greek Colonies were established under 
sanction of the Delphic oracle on the Mediter- 
ranean and Black Seas. 

Modem. Spain, Portugal, Venice, Genoa, etc., were 

powerful at sea. European colonies were estab- 
lished under sanction of the Pope on the Atlantic 
and Indian Oceans. 



15 



Ancient. This age witnessed not only a social and 
political movement among the masses in various 
parts of Greece, but also an intellectual and 
spiritual stirring. 

Modem. This was the epoch of the Renaissance and of 

the Reformation. 

Ancient. A contest for control of the Sanctuary at 
Olympia, and the First Sacred War in defense 
of the oracle at Delphi, took place in this epoch 
in Greece. 

Modem. In Europe, the Wars of the Reformation. 

Ancient. The Greek colonies on the eastern coast of 
the iEgean were conquered by the Lydians. 

Modem. Constantinople was taken and the Balkan 

Peninsula conquered by the Turks. 



Fourth Epoch : 550 to 400 B. C. in Greece and 1600 
TO 1815 A. D. IN Europe 

Ancient. At about the beginning of this epoch Hippias, 
tyrant of Athens, was murdered and a democracy 
was established. Democracies were established 
in other Greek states, but Sparta, although 
she gave great power to the representatives of 
the people, still preserved both her hereditary 
kings and the Council of her nobles. 

Modem. The monarchs of France retained their thrones 

nearly to the end of this epoch when Louis XVI. 
was executed and a democracy established. 
Reforms were introduced in the governments 
of other European states. In England, Charles 
I. was executed, a Commonwealth and Pro- 
tectorate were established and abolished, and 
the Monarchy restored, but eventually reforms 
were introduced in the government retaining, 
however, the hereditary king and the House 
of Lords. 

Ancient. At the beginning of this epoch the Persians, 
who had conquered the Lydians, crossed the 



16 



Hellespont and subjected Thrace and Mace- 
donia. The battle of Plataea, B. C. 479, put 
an end to their power in Europe. 

Modem. The Turks had crossed the Danube and 

subjected Hungary and Roumania before the 
beginning of this epoch. The battle at Vienna, 
A. D. 1683, drove them out of Hungary and put 
Europe out of danger. 

Ancient. Macedonia expanded to four times her 
former size and reached the Thermaic Gulf. 
Alexander I. moved his capital from iEgae to 
Pydna. 

Modem. Russia expanded to three times her former 

size and reached the Baltic. Peter I. moved 
; his capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg. 

Ancient. Sparta upheld the supremacy of Thebes in 
Boeotia. 

Modem. England upheld the power of Pmssia under 

Frederick in Germany. 

Ancient. In the Peloponnesian War with which this 

epoch ends, the states in which liberal ideas of 
government prevailed were in general allied for 
a while with Athens, but as her power increased 
her imperial conduct became offensive. The 
states ruled by oligarchies and those in which 
conservative ideas prevailed were in general 
allied with Sparta. The result of the War was 
to make Sparta and the oligarchic party supreme 
in Greece. 

Modem. In the Wars of the French revolution and 

empire with which this epoch ends, the liberal 
states were in general for a while allied with 
France, but as her power increased her imperial 
conduct became offensive. The imperial, oli- 
garchical, and conservative states were allied 
with England. The result of the War was to 
make England and the aristocratic and imperial 
party supreme in Europe. 



17 



In the Last Epoch from 400 to 340 B. C. and 1815 to 

1908 A. D. 

Ancient. Sparta placed thirty tyrants over Athens 
who were soon overthrown. The democratic 
government was restored. 

Modem. The EngHsh and Russians placed a Bour- 

bon on the throne of France. After several 
revolutions a republican government was 
established. 

Ancient. The Spartans lost their supremacy and Athens 
again became powerful in Greece. 

Modem. The English lost their supremacy and France 

again became powerful in Europe. 

Ancient. The Thebans under Pelopidas and Epaminon- 
das overthrew the power of Sparta and Athens, 
and had a short supremacy in Greece. 

Modem. The Pmssians under William I. and Bismarck 

overthrew the power of France, established 
the German Empire, and became the leading 
military state in Europe. 

Ancient. After passing through some revolutions of 
which little is known, Macedonia became the 
most powerful state in Greece. The balance 
of power was overthrown. The Persian Empire 
was conquered and divided. 

Modem. Before passing through constitutional reforms 

of which the necessity had been generally 
recognized, Russia became involved in a war 
with Japan, the result of which was to check 
for a while her advance in Asia. 



Of the states that sprang from Alexander's conquest, 
the Greeks in Bactria pushed on into India and held con- 
trol for many years. Powerful Greek states were founded 
in Egypt and Syria and small ones in Asia Minor. The 
Eastern half of the old Persian Empire was reconquered 
by the Asiatics, but all the rest of the old world was merged 
in the Roman Republic. 



20 



COMPARISON OF ROMAN AND AMERICAN 
HISTORY. 

Ancient. The early history of the Romans, relates to 
fights for territory with their neighbors, the 
Etruscans and Sabines; to the formation of the 
league for common protection and religious 
worship with the other Latin towns; and to 
their subjection by the Etruscans and Sabines 
in succession. 

Modern. The early history of the Americans relates to 

fights for territory with the French and Indians; 
to the formation of leagues for protection of their 
lives and religious worship; and to the oppressions 
of the British government. 

Ancient. The next important events of Roman History 

were the wars of independence from the rule 
of the Etruscans and Sabines in succession and 
the abolition of royalty. The latter was possibly 
gradual in Rome and the latest authorities 
suggest the year 450 B. C. as the probable date. 

Modem. The next important events in American 

history were the War of the Revolution and 
the Declaration of Independence. 

The dates of the abolition of royalty, 450 B. C, 
and of the Declaration of Independence, 1876 
A. D., may be taken as the first definite points 
of contact between Roman and American History 
separating the Mythical and Colonial history from 
the National ; and the Regal from the Republican. 

Ancient. The next events in Roman history are the 

conquest of Veii and the extension of Roman 
territoiy across the Tiber in Southern Etruria, 
from 396 to 383 B. C. and the invasion of Italy 
by the Gauls who took Rome in 390 B. C. 

Modern. In American history the next events are the 

purchase of Louisiana in 1803 and the invasion 
of the United States by the British who took 
Washington in 1814. 



21 



Ancient. The distribution of the newly acquired land 
was a subject of constant contention between 
the Romans and the other members of the 
Latin league. The population of the Roman 
domain was commercial and urban as well as 
agricultural; that of the other Latin towns was 
almost entirely agricultural. The new territory 
was rapidly colonized both by the Romans and 
by the other Latins, but the power of the Romans 
made more rapid advances. 

Modern. The distribution of the land acquired by the 

Louisiana purchase became a subject of con- 
tention between the urban commercial and 
agricultural North, and the agricultural South. 
The new territory was rapidly colonized, but in 
greater numbers from the northern states than 
from the southern. 

The occupation of the centre of the American 
continent, however, took a different shape from 
that of the occupation of the centre of the 
Italian peninsula. The Americans acquired 
new land by migration, the Romans by con- 
quest ; but the Samnite Confederation which the 
Romans absorbed was similar in blood and in 
organization to the Federation that absorbed it. 
The population was agricultural and pastoral. 

Ancient. The first Samnite war in 343 B. C. ended in 
the defeat of the Samnites, who then became 
allies of the Romans. In 340 B. C. the Latin 
towns seceded from the league with the Romans. 
They were conquered by the Romans and 
Samnites. In the Second Samnite War, 326 to 
305, the Samnites were finally conquered. In 
the Third War they seceded and were subdued. 

Modern. These wars between the Romans and the 

Latins and between the two Confederacies of 
Italian states may be compared with the Civil 
War in America, from 1861 to 1865 and the 
reconstruction which followed. 



22 



Ancient. Lucania and Apulia had been colonized and 

held by the Greeks. Lucania was afterwards 
conquered by Italians. Soon after the Samnite 
and Latin Wars (290 B. C.) both were conquered 
by the Romans, whose power then extended from 
the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic and from the 
Gulf of Tarentum to Ancona. Etruria was 
independent but the mountain region of Umbria 
had just been conquered. 

Modern. Mexico and California had been colonized and 

held by the Spaniards. Texas afterwards 
seceded from Mexico and was occupied by 
American settlers. A short time before the 
Civil War (1846) this territory was conquered 
by the Americans whose power then extended 
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and 
from the Gulf of Mexico to Oregon. Soon after 
the Civil War Alaska was purchased from Russia. 

Ancient. In 282 B. C. the Romans went to war with 
the Tarentines who were aided by other Greek 
cities and by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. The 
Romans were victorious and by 270 B. C. thirty- 
five years after the Second Samnite War, the 
Romans had conquered all the Greek colonies 
in Southern Itlay. 

Modern. In 1898 A. D. the Americans went to war 

with the Spaniards, who were not aided by other 
European powers. The Americans were vic- 
torious and in 1899 deprived the Spaniards 
of all their island possessions. This was thirty- 
three years after the Civil War.^ 



It appears then that the history of the United States of 
America has followed a similar course to that of Ancient 
Rome but on a much larger scale. 



'it is an interesting coincidence that the immediate cause of the war was the same 
in each case. In 282 B. C, when a Roman fleet was at anchor in the harbor of Taren- 
tum, the inhabitants attacked it without provocation, took several of the ships and 
made a great slaughter. In 1898, A. D., when an American battleship was at anchor 
in the harbor of Havana, some one blew it up without provocation. 



23 

In this comparison, the year 270 B. C, 180 years after 
the birth of the Roman RepubUc, corresponds to the year 
1899 A. D., 123 years after the birth of the American 
Repubhc. The time is too short to furnish an exact gauge 
for a detailed comparison. 

Conclusion. 

The comparison appears to show that America's place 
in Modern History is similar to that of Rome in Ancient 
History. European and American history have followed 
in the path of Greek and Roman, but on a much larger scale. 
Europe has moved a little slower than Greece, America 
a little faster than Rome. 

To infer from this resemblance that the history of the 
future will follow precisely the same course as the history 
of the past, would defeat the purpose of the comparison. 
If the course were due to subjective causes alone this might 
be more or less true, but so far as it is due to environment, 
it is impossible; for all continents have not the same shape. 
Moreover, the world is round and the streams of empire 
moving to the East and to the West may perhaps come into 
bristling contact before we are able to predict future events 
in history with the same precision that we can calculate 
the motions of the planets. 

The object in comparing the history of one nation with 
that of another is to ascertain the laws which control its 
development. When the laws are discovered they will 
throw some light on the future. 

In comparing ancient with modern history more useful 
results can be expected from a comparison of the same 
phases of ancient and modern than from the comparison 
of the history of one nation in its infancy with that of another 
in its decline, or that of one member of a cluster of states 
like those of Ancient Greece with that of an independent 
nation like America. A certain resemblance can, of course, 
be detected by almost any comparison, but not one as far 
reaching in its deductions as one made between two nations 
in the same stage of development and holding the same 
relations to their neighbors. 



24 

A comparison of the Federation of the United States of 
America with that of the Achaean towns, while quite 
interesting from one standpoint, has Uttle bearing on the 
future career of the American nation. 

The fact that the British Empire to-day covers more 
ground than the Roman Empire of old, has comparatively 
little meaning. With railroads, steam-boats and telegraphs, 
states are in general much larger than before. Bearing 
this in mind, a comparison of the same phases of the history 
of Athens, Sparta and Central Greece with that of France, 
England and Germany, that of Macedonia with Russia, 
or that of ancient Rome with that of modern America, 
can hardly fail to be profitable and to throw some light on 
the question of how much of the development in each case 
is due to organic growth, and how much to environment. 

After the Tarentine War the Romans were soon engaged 
in war with the Carthaginians. The shape of the continents 
is not such as to indicate precisely who will be our next 
antagonist. A war with Mexico now would not be as simple 
as it was in 1846. Some European power in league with 
the Argentine, or with all the Spanish Americans might 
perhaps give us as much trouble as Pyrrhus or Hannibal 
gave the Romans. Japan is a thoroughly Asiatic country 
and not Iberian like Carthage and Spanish America; but 
Japan holds a position in the Pacific hke that of Pontus 
in the Black Sea and that of Carthage in the Mediterranean, 

Although the shape of Sicily and North Africa does not 
resemble that of Central and South America, yet a glance 
at a chart of the world is sufficient to show that the American 
continent holds the same position with reference to the 
Atlantic and Pacific that Italy holds with reference to the 
Mediterranean, and has like advantages for becoming the 
political as well as the commercial centre of the World. 

Although political and territorial history cannot move 
with the same regularity as the planets, we are safe in assum- 
ing that under like conditions modern history will follow a like 
course to that of ancient history but on a much larger scale. 

How far its course will be changed in each instance is a 
problem for the historian and the economist to solve, and 



25 

the object of classification and comparison is to simplify 
this study by showing in what regions this study is required, 
and it is suggested here that Greek history in the Epoch 
between the Peloponnesian War and the Macedonian 
Supremacy in Greece may be compared with the contem- 
porary history of Europe. If anything can be learned about 
the political condition of Macedonia before the accession 
of Philip, it may throw Hght upon the effect of the present 
reforms in the government of Russia. The disintegration 
of the Persian Empire in the time of Xenophon and Agesilaus 
and the sudden rise of the military and maritime power 
of^ Caria under Mausolus and afterward of Pontus under 
Mithridates I. may be compared with the present situation 
in the far East. The history of the Greek states in Egypt, 
Syria, Bactria, etc., on the one hand, and of Parthia and 
Pontus on the other, may indicate the possible condition 
of Asia in case of a partition of the Chinese Empire. 

The histoiy of Rome from the Pyrrhic to the Carthaginian 
Wars will throw some light on the contemporary history 
of America and be very useful in its bearing upon our colonial 
policy. We have progressed half as fast again as the Romans, 
but Europe has not progressed quite as fast as Greece and 
it may be a little longer before her states are ready to cast 
their lot with us. The conquest, if any, need not be bloody, 
but blood may be spilt in wars with conservative nations 
who try to check our progress. 



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